The young Semah and Meir Benveniste are brought to Portugal by
their father. Their Christian names are Francisco and Diogo
Mendes.
1497
Forced conversions in Portugal
1510(?)
Gracia is born in Portugal. Her outside name was Beatrice de
Luna. In the family she was Gracia (Hannah) Nasi. Her brother
Dr. Miguez was the royal physician.
1512
Diogo Mendes opens a branch of the House of Mendes in Antwerp. By
1525 the brothers control the largest share of the pepper and spice
trade, buying directly from the King of Portugal (the only bulk
importer). The capital at his disposal was 300,000 400,000
florins He made loans to the Kings of Portugal and England.
Birth of Gracias nephew Joao Miguez (Joseph Nasi)
1528.
Gracia is married to Francisco Mendes. Brother of Diogo. They had
migrated with their father in 1492 as one of 600 privileged families.
Their family names were Semah and Meir Benveniste. Starting as
dealers in precious stones, they became wealthy and important
traders, participating in the hugely profitable spice trade
1531
Diogo is arrested for heresy (being a secret
"Judaizer"). Using letters of safe conduct from the (Holy
Roman) Emperor he is released the same day.
1532.
Diogo is arrested on the word of a child who, with his mother and
3 siblings, Diogo has previously helped escape to Salonica. Diogo is
moved to Brussels. Antwerp puts up obstacles, demands the right to
try him. The King of Portugal, who will lose 200,000 ducats if Diogo
cannot complete business deals, instructs his representatives to
intervene. Mary of Hungary and Henry VIII also support
Diogo.
September. Diogo is released under bail of 50,000 ducats and a
large cash payment. Charges are dropped.
The Emperor prohibits New Christians from travelling through
Antwerp on their way to Turkey. The House of Mendes is able to help
most travelers anyway.
1535-36
The New Christian community attempts to pay the Pope 30,000
ducats to prohibit the Inquisition from Antwerp. The deal is not
completed due to mutual suspicion.
1536.
Francisco dies, Gracia is left with an infant daughter Reyna
(publicly known as Brianda). The administration of Franciscos
fortune is divided between Gracia, who is to act in the name of her
daughter, and Diogo
Papal brief on May 23 opens the Inquisition in Portugal, on the
Spanish model. New Christians cannot easily emigrate to non-Christian
countries, but can go to Northern Europe. Gracia moves to Antwerp
with her daughter Brianda, her unmarried sister Brianda (namesake of
Gracias daughter),. and her nephews Joao Miguez (a.k.a. Joseph
Nasi, later Duke of Naxos) and his younger brother. They stop for a
while in England. In Antwerp, Brianda marries Diogo.
1537
New Christians guaranteed the ability to settle in Antwerp with
full rights, with immunity from prosecution for crimes committed
elsewhere.
1539.
Inquisition begins in Lisbon. Mass emigration to Antwerp and
(Spanish) Italy.
1540
Massive arrests in Italy of New Christians on their way to
Ancona or Salonica. Suspicions that their finds were provided by
Diogo. Three leading merchants of Antwerp hold a meeting send 2,000
ducats to Milan to provide for the prisoners and bribe the
commissioners. An employee of the firm who is at this meeting is
later arrested in Italy and informs on the secret meeting and colony.
All suspect New Christians in England are arrested, although later
released. Gracia gets Diogo to agree to leave Flanders within a
year.
1542-43
Diogo dies. Gracia is named administrator of Diogos half of
the business on behalf of his widow and infant daughter. Gracia
must fight charges of heresy against Diogo (else his property will be
confiscated)> The charges are withdrawn when she lends the emperor
100,000 ducats interest free.
1542(?)-4
Gracia is pressured by the Emperor to marry her daughter to a
much older (Old Christian) nobleman, Don Francisco dAragon.
Aragon promises the Emperor a 200,000 loan from his wifes money
if the marriage takes place. She is personally summoned by Mary,
ex-Queen of Hungary, Regent of the Netherlands, and sister of the
Emperor who proposes the match to her.
1544
Gracia leaves Antwerp with her sister and the two young girls ,
under pretext of a vacation in Aachem (Aix-la-Chapelle) but instead
settles in Venice. She has previously arranged with the government
for a safe-conduct. Much of the fortune is left in Antwerp with Joao
Miguez.
1545
The two widows are accused of apostasy and ordered to appear
before the Council of Brabrant. When they fail to appear, an embargo
is placed on the 40 treasure chests they had left in Antwerp. Miguez
enters into delaying negotiations with the Emperor. Eventually the
Emperor accepts a payment of 30,000 crowns in settlement of all
claims. However, the Queen argues for total confiscation. During the
protracted negotiations Miguez manages to sell some of the
firms Antwerp property and finally flees to Venice. Meanwhile,
Gracia has arranged for the Venetian government to sequester
venetian property of German merchants who had custody of her treasure
in Antwerp, and was able to recover some of the latter in return for
lifting of the embargo. Despite serious losses the firm is still
wealthy, and out of Spanish control at last.
1546-1549
Brianda, possibly jealous of Gracias control of the company
and its fortunes, denounces her as a Judaizer, and announced that the
plan was to eventually leave Venice for Turkey. The Venetian
government embargoes the family property, placed Gracia under arrest,
and places the girls in a nunnery. Brianda employs an anti-Jewish
French agent to lodge a similar denunciation in France, but is in
turn denounced by the agent, so that the property she had hoped to
receive is also placed under embargo.
Joseph Hamon, a Sephardic Jew who was physician to the Turkish
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, brings the story to the Sultan who,
is hoping for the transfer of the Mendes business empire to Turkey.
The Sultan sends an envoy to Venice requesting that Gracia be allowed
to travel immediately to Constantinople.
1547
Joseph flees Amsterdam and settles in France. He enters the
circle of Kind Francis I.
1549
Gracie has arranged for her release and has been reunited with
her daughter. She is given one month to swear to be a true
Christian, or to never return to Venice. She is unwilling to move to
Constantinople at this time, without arranging for the transfer of
the business
1550
February They move to Ferrara, where Jews were welcomed and
immune from attack on religious grounds, at invitation of the Duke.
Within a few months Brianda joins her, with her daughter. They
begin to live openly as Jews.
They return to Venice to visit with the Sultans envoy,
under safe-conduct.
July 8. The Venetian Senate issues an expulsion order against
the New Christians. (By the end of the century the policy is reversed
and Venice becomes a haven for the Marranos.)
1551
An outbreak of plague. The Jews are believed to have brought it
on their journeys and are required to leave the city. Gracia
organized their movements, provided supplies and money. Eventually
the scare dies down and the Jews return.
1552
The first Spanish version of the traditional prayer book is
published in Ferrara. This is followed by a translation of the Bible.
The edition published for Christians is dedicated to the Duke; the
one for Jews is dedicated to "one so noble and magnificent that
it would adorn her nobility" "the Very Magnificent
Lady Doña Gracia Naci[sic]".
This in turn is followed by "Concolation for the
Tribulations of Israel" a prose poem in Portuguese recounting
the whole of Jewish history, written to assist the crypto-Jews of
Portugal and prevent them from being overwhelmed by what they had
undergone. This is also dedicated to Gracia: "who has seen
revived the intrinsic piety of Miriam, offering her life to save her
brethren? The great prudence of Deborah, in governing her people?
That infinite virtue and great sanctity of Esther, in helping those
who are persecuted? The much praised strength of the most chaste and
magnanimous widow, Judith, in delivering those hemmed in by travail?
[It is]the fortunate Jewess Nasci. She it is who at the beginning of
their journey greatly helps your necessitous sons In such wise,
with her golden arm and heavenly grasp, she raised moth of those of
this people from the depths of this and other infinite travail in
which they were kept enthralled in Europe she brings them to
safe lands and does not cease to guide them, and gathers them to the
obedience and precepts of their god of old."
The Inquisition spreads further in Europe.
Pope Julius III guarantees that Portuguese New Christians who
settle in Ancona will be free from prosecutions by ecclesiastical
courts on the basis of practice of Judaism. Upwards of 100 families
will migrate to Ancona, live openly as Jews, and open a
synagogue.
1553
Julius III extends his concessions to all Jews and Portuguese in
Ancona. (In return for payment of 1000 ducats per year.)
Gracia and her family arrive in Constantinople.
Joseph Nasi arrives in Constantinople and declares himself a Jew
(and is circumcised); marries Reyna.
1555
The fanatical anti-Jewish Cardinal Giovanni Caraffa becomes Pope
Paul IV. In Italy he institutes the Ghetto system, excludes Jews from
honorable walks of life, enforces wearing of Jewish badge of Spain.
His representative in Ancona arrests the whole of the Portuguese New
Christian community and jails them, in violation of guarantees they
had received from the city and from previous Popes. This
representative takes bribes and allows approximately 50 to go free.
He flees to Venice with more than 300,000 ducats of bribes and
confiscated money. His successor orders the remaining prisoners
shackled together and tortured in public.
Gracia's representatives in Ferrara are denounced to the
Inquisition, although no evidence is produced. Her daughter (now
called Gracia la chica or Gracia the Younger) and her daughters
husband (Samuel. Josephs brother) are living in
Ferrara.
1556
The Sultans son and co-ruler, Selim, sends an envoy to the
Duke of Ferrara. His mission is to secure permission for Gracia la
chica and Samuel to leave for Constantinople. The Emperor and the
Pope intervene.
Starting April 13, twenty five prisoners who had refused to
abjure Judaism were strangled and burned.
Boycott of Ancona organized by Gracia Mendes.
1558
Gracia la chica and Samuel are allowed to leave Ferrara.
1561
Tiberias is granted to Joseph. He is to be instrumental in its
rebuilding.
1562
Joseph negotiates a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey.
1566
Suleiman the Magnificent dies. With Josephs help, his son
Selim becomes Sultan. Joseph is appointed Dike of Naxos.
1569
Joseph supports the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain ( and
offers support of the Ottoman empire).
Gracia Mendes dies
Samuel dies
1579
Joseph dies
1596
The first public Jewish service is held in Amsterdam